Capital Punishment :: essays research papers

Among the first people to be executed were the so-called witches within the colonies. These executions became known as the Salem Witch trials. When the trials between May and October 1692 were over, there were about twenty people that were sentenced to die. According to the English law many offenses were punishable by death. Most included property crimes and such other non-violent crimes. Robbery, extortion, arson and pick pocketing were all punishable by death. In Massachusetts there were only thirteen crimes punishable by death which include; cursing, adultery, lying under oath, praying to idols, etc. Throughout the colonies Ohio, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and New York kept the death penalty while in others they opposed and abolished the law. Michigan was the first state to do away with capital punishment. After that the states followed although Maine teeter tottered until 1887, when the law was abolished. Many years passed and states went back and forth on whether or not to keep or discard the death penalty. Some discarded it while other kept it and limited the number of crimes punishable by death. Since May 1995, 38 out of the 50 states had capital punishment laws.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The ongoing debate about capital punishment is a tug of war. When crime declines the need for death penalty declines and when crime increases the need also increases. It’s all a matter of our social situation. Statistics show that by 2001 the 80 percent of supporters declined to a 65 percent and went even lower in 2002. From 1990 to 2000 the number of people sentenced to die was a good 3,550 the number of people executed was highest in 1930’s to the 1940’s.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1994, as part of the crime bill, the federal death penalty was expanded to some 60 different offenses. Some of the federal crimes for which people in any state or United Sates territory can receive a death sentence are, murder, kidnapping resulting in death, fatal drive-by shootings, sexual abuse crimes resulting in death, car jacking resulting in death, and crimes not resulting in death, such as running a large-scale drug endeavor. Below are some statistics taken from another source.*   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since 1988, the federal government has authorized seeking the death penalty against 211 defendants. Of the 211 approved prosecutions, 158 (75%) were against minority defendants. Of these defendants, 53 have been white, 39 Hispanic, 12 Asian/Indian/Pacific Islander, 2 Arab and 105 African American.

Annotated referencelist

Throughout the text it clearly mentions that they have specifically chosen this particular time period due to the fact that is shows the commencement of impartial research as well as the changeover between the founding years (Cave, 1983). Throughout the above Journal article there are a variety of areas which are mentioned, they Include, the Chicago school, the methods and the department In the sass's as well as the precursor to the translation years (Cave, 1983). By discussing these areas It allows for a better understanding of the Chicago school during these ears to be developed.Application: The main contributing factor as to why the chosen article may be useful in understanding and answering the essay question is it allows for a better understanding of the topic at hand. When answering an essay question is it is key to have an understanding of the ideas about the Chicago school and how it came about. The chosen Journal article allows for this while also giving us a further look at the contributions It has made to criminology. The research behind this Journal article mom from four renowned figure during the discussed time frame.The research produced by these four Individuals, who have studied this area In-depth, Is extremely helpful when trying to gain a better understanding of the Chicago school. Book: Brown, S, Expenses, F and Gels, G 2010, Criminology: Explaining crime and Its context, Lexis's Group, New Jersey The Book Criminology: Explaining crime and its context focuses mainly on, as stated be seen that there are a number of section which discuss; crime and criminology, horses of crime and types of crime and foundations of criminology.While deliberating these areas the text also refers to one of the main projects of the Chicago school, CAP, which is known as the Chicago school area project to try and prevent delinquency (Brown et al, 2010). The book outlines how both the Chicago school and CAP it relate to crime. With the information presented within th e summary the chosen text can be useful when answering the above essay question. Throughout the text the reasoning as to why crime occurs and the numerous types of crime are clearly stated.By using this book it will allow us to have a better understanding of crime and criminology, thus allowing us to answer the second part of the question. With the mention of CAP it helps us to identify the connection between and criminology and the contribution the Chicago school has had on it. The book gives us an in-depth look at current crime issues as well as the relevance of the contribution to criminological thought in current years. The book helps us to gain knowledge of the link between the Chicago school and crime.

Theoretical Problems of Terminology

Content†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 1. Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 2. Chapter 1 1. Theoretical problems of terminology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦.. 6 1. 1 Terms, their definition and classification 1. 2 Terminology 3. Chapter 2 Semantic peculiarities of English and Ukrainian medical terminology †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 15 4. Conclusions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 6 5. The list of literature used†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 28 Anotation Terminology appears spontaneously as a result of knowledge accumulation and appearance of special notions and concepts. The importance of our investigation is determined by the necessity to study the semantics of medical terms. The aim of our year paper is to define the main semantic peculiarities of English and Ukrainian medical terms and their interaction with the words of general language.The achievement of the aim provides accomplishment of the following tasks: 1) to study theoretical literature on the problems investigated; 2) to s tudy medical terms and their meanings on the basis of explanatory and special dictionaries; 3) to apply the methods of formalized analysis of semantics for building the matrix of semantic space of the English and Ukrainian medical terminology on the background of general language; 4) to define the correlation of terminological and general semantics of lexemes under study.The object of our year paper is 50 English and Ukrainian medical terms with the explanation of their medical and general meanings. The subject of our investigation – semantic peculiarities of the English and Ukrainian medical terms. The language material for the year paper was taken from four dictionaries. The lexical material for our research presents 50 English medical terms the semantics of which we have analyzed from medical vocabulary (Mondofacto) and explanatory (Longman) dictionary, we also used Ukrainian medical and explanatory dictionaries.We separated the semes from the meanings of the terms that ha ve been studied in order to the basis of English and Ukrainian terminological and explanatory dictionaries. We analyzed the peculiarities of their special and general semantics. The year paper consists of the introduction, two chapters, conclusions, the list of literature used and supplement. Chapter I. Theoretical problems of terminology Modern life of society is characterized by steep development of science and technology that’s why it leads to improvement of languages of these branches, especially scientific and technical terminology.The term â€Å"terminology† is assigned to several concepts: Terminology 1: Terminology science. Inter-and-Trans disciplinary field of knowledge dealing with concepts and their representations (terms, symbols, etc. ) Terminology 2: Aggregate of terms, which represent the system of concept of an individual subject field. Terminology 3: Publication in which the system of concepts of a subject field is represented by terms. [6;18] The func tions of terminology: ) the ordering of knowledge on grounds of the relationships of concepts. 2) the transfer of knowledge, skills and technology (education, training, reading of scientific and technical texts, etc. ) 3) the formulation and dissemination of scientific and technical texts into their information. 4) the translation of scientific and technical texts into their languages. 5) the abstracting and condensing of subject information. 6) the storage and retrieval of scientific and technical information. 6;18] Theories of terminology as they have developed over at least six decades, consider that concepts are: 1) units of thought, focusing on the psychological aspect of recognizing objects as part of reality; 2) units of knowledge, focusing on the epistemological aspect of information gathered on the object in question; 3) units of communication, stressing the fact that concepts are the prerequisite for knowledge transfer in specialized discourse.The development of terminolog ies as a crucial part of special purpose languages reflects scientific, technical and economic progress in the subject fields concerned. Due to different speeds in this dynamic co-evolution of knowledge in the individual domains, specialized discourse continues to differentiate into more and more sectorized special languages and terminologies. 18; 7] But these communication tools become increasingly ambiguous due to the sheer number of concepts to be designated and the limited linguistic resources of every natural language: terms are taken over from one domain into another, usually with varying meanings in the form of metaphors or analogies; new homonyms, and terminological meanings, synonyms arise, motivating or even forcing subject specialists to standardize their terminology and harmonize them on the multilingual level in order to reduce and manage the constantly rising communicative complexity that faces their discourse communities.Terminology research is not limited to semiotic and linguistic studies of term formation and the epistemological dimension of the evolution of scientific knowledge. The agenda of terminology science also includes socio-terminological studies of the acceptance of neologisms proposed by terminology and language planners, case studies on terminology development by standardization and harmonization efforts, research and development concerning the establishment and use of terminology databases for various user groups and purposes and concerning controlled vocabularies for documentation and information retrieval purposes.Terminology displays the notions that were created, and spontaneously exist in every branch. Terminology is the study of and the field of activity concerned with the collection, description, processing and presentations of terms. The field of terminology is not independent as a discipline. Terminology though traced back for some decades got a more theoretical and methodological background in the past years. Terminolog y is an inter disciplinary field of research because it is highly influenced by the activities and methods of the areas if serves. Earlier terminology was a problem of engineers needing concepts for naming new technical items.Now linguists claim it to be another dimension of lexicology and lexicography. Terminology has become a specialized aspect of computational linguistics and information science[17;10]. Terminology is the study of terms and their use. Terms are words and compound words that in specific contexts are given specific meanings, meanings that may deviate from the meaning the same words have in other contexts and in everyday language. The discipline Terminology studies among other things how such terms of art come to be and their interrelationships within a culture. Terminology differs from lexicography n studying concepts, conceptual systems, and their labels (terms), whereas lexicography study words and their meanings. Terminology thus denotes a discipline which syste matically studies the labelling or designating of concepts particular to one or more subject fields or domains of human activity, through research and analysis of terms in context, for the purpose of documenting and promoting consistent usage. This study can be limited to one language or can cover more than one language at the same time (multilingual terminology, bilingual terminology, and so forth) or may focus on studies of terms across fields [26;45].Terminology is a science whose aim is to study terms, which are lexical elements used in specialized fields (subjects or their branches) and generated in such fields or modified from elements already existing in other fields. In Terminology, the â€Å"term† or â€Å"terminological unit† is the meaning unit made up of one single word (simple term) or several words (complex term) and represents a concept in an univocal way in a specific semantic field (Office of the French Language of Quebec). From this definition, we can understand that a term is a specialized word in relation to its meaning and the field in which it is used.It is considered in that way when used in a certain context in which it takes the function of a â€Å"term†. Terms are elements of natural languages, as are other lexical units too. As far as terminologies reflect rapid development of science, they are opened to language planning, systematic management and different kinds of manipulation more than other lexical subsystems or strata. This causes terminologists to fulfill three comprehensive projects 1) the standardization of existing terminologies; 2) the creation of new national terminologies as well as 3) their international unification. 18; 8] A definition is description of a concept by means of other known concepts, mostly in the form of words and terms. It determines the position of this concept in a system of other related concepts. Definitions can be categorized according to their purpose into descriptive prescript ive definitions. A descriptive definition states which meaning a term has. A prescriptive definition states which meaning a term should have. [15;11] In the seventies of the xx century the peak of interest towards system character of terminology could be observed and that was connected with the popularity of the biologist Bertalanffy.This scientist suggested the programme of building general theory of systems, which contained general principles and laws of the systems behaviour no matter what elements and the relationships between were. The difference between terminology system and terminology is, first of all, in the way they come into being. Terminology appears spontaneously as a result of knowledge accumulation and appearance of special notions and concepts. Terminology enters the mental world far from being accomplished and crowned; its lexical units are very far from systematic.Terminological system is completely isomorphic to the system of concepts and terminology is not. [23; 17] Terminology-is the section of vocabulary which covers the terms of different spheres of science, art, social life, and technics. [9;23] Terminology is closely related to such sciences as ontology, logics, linguistics, communication theory, information and documentation science, computer science, etc. In the GTT the notion ‘‘concept’’ and its relationship to other concepts have a central position. They are cornerstones of the GTT and the starting point of any terminology work.The conceptology which is a basic discipline of logic is closely connected in this respect with terminology. The most important link of terminology to linguistics is that the term is a linguistic symbol, which is formed by words or word elements. [18; 7] Terminology is not connected to information retrieval in any way but focused on the meaning and conveyance of concepts. â€Å"Terms† used in an information retrieval context are not the same as â€Å"terms† used in the context of terminology, as they are not always technical terms of art. 9;20] The problems of terminology were investigated by such linguists as:L. A. Kapanadze [10], V. I. Malcey [11], V. P. Danulenko [9;9], O . S. Achmanova [5;58], A. A. Reformatskuj [11;27], H. O. Vinokur [7;11] and others. Semantic aspect of English and Ukrainian medical terminology was studied by such linguists as:Balyshyn S. I[3], Chabirova Z. P,[11], Orlova A. S, Philipova Y. B. [21;22], Skinner H. A[23], Dorian A. F[54;20]. and others The English language began creation of modern terminology from Choser’s time.In his work â€Å"Treatise on the astrolabe† he for the first time used terms declinations, ecliptic, latitude, longitude, meridian, zodiac etc. Term (lat. Terminus – boundary, limit) is alexico -nominative unit that needs definitions( V. P. Danylenko[11;20], T. L. Kandelaki[25] and others). Definition is a necessary dependency of term which has a meaning for its selection from the vocabulary stock of language(S. V. Novak)[15;23]. Term is considered to be a nominative sign that operates in the language with a special purpose (V. M. Leychik).Term is determined as a language unit, correlated with conceptions of special professional spheres ( V. A. Tatarynov) [14;27]. It is understandable that a large number of terminological definitions as a conception of a word and scientific term do not lead to distinct and simple solution of their theoretically linguistic essence. The study of early works in terminology shows that linguistic essence of term is not enough researched. Mainly researchers were interested in lexicographical aspect of terminology and not in definition and uncovering semantic peculiarities of term .A term is a word or a certain word- combination that distinctly and definitely designates scientific or special notion. The term does not designate the notion like an ordinary word, but inversely, the concept is attached to a term. Thus, a specific conce pt determined by a term is understandable only due to its definition-laconic, logical, which points out essential indications of a subject and denotes its notion and matter. According to Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, a term is â€Å"a word or expression that has a precise meaning in some uses or is peculiar to a science, art, profession or subject. [18; 10] One more definition of a term explains as â€Å"any conventional symbol for a concept which consists of articulated sounds or of their written representations. A term may be a word or a phrase. †[20; 10] As it is vivid from the definition the term always stands for a concept and it should preferably stand for a single concept. This concept has a meaning that is fixed, abstract and general. Only features that are considered to be relevant are retained in the meaning, other features are rejected. Concepts are mental representations of individual object or comprise a set of individual objects having certain qua lities in common.Concepts are mental representations of individual object or comprise a set of individual objects having certain qualities in common. A term is defined by the content it stands for and not by any peculiarities in its linguistic structure. [15; 11]. An expression is a term within the framework of a conceptual system in which it is defined as a term. Membership of a terminological system thus gives an expression terminological status. Ancient Greek philosophers said that a term has two meanings: In broad definition a term-is a word or word-combination, which denotes real or abstract subjects.In this case the word term coincide with the meaning of a â€Å"name†, it means that a term the same as name. In narrow definition, as we already know the term- is a word or word-combinations introduced into a science as the designation of subjects, appearances that are studied by the science. [12;272]. To descriptive terms belong: a)set-expressions, which name or denote emp irical and abstract objects. They designate a â€Å"term†-as proper and general names. b)predicative expression-is a word or word-combination which denotes properties and qualities of subjects and relations between the subjects. )objective functional expressions, which denote objective functions and operations, to which special mathematical and logical signs and words denoting scope, weight, growth, colour belong. [14; 30] Terms can be more or less complex lexical units that are generated following several processes: †¢ The extension of the meaning of a word in the standard language (for instance, â€Å"mouse† in computing terminology is a device that allows the user to interact with the computer). †¢ Generation of a phrase that functions as a whole with one specialized meaning (superconducting magnet). Symbolic expressions, as chemical element symbols (Na) or chemical and mathematical formulas (H2SO4). †¢ Abbreviations (PVC) and acronyms (NATO, from Nor th Atlantic Treaty Organization). †¢ Names of post (Prime Minister), organizations or administrations (United Nations, Prime Minister). The border line between word and term is drawn by the use of the lexical unit in a specialised field of knowledge with a specialised meaning or not. That is why a certain level of specialised knowledge is needed to recognise a term (we will only know that mouse is a term if we know the computing terminology).The characteristics of a text –communicative purpose, subject, specialisation grade– are also helpful to recognise the presence of terms. †¢ The extension of the meaning of a word in the standard language (for instance, â€Å"mouse† in computing terminology is a device that allows the user to interact with the computer). †¢ Generation of a phrase that functions as a whole with one specialized meaning (superconducting magnet). †¢ Symbolic expressions, as chemical element symbols (Na) or chemical and mathem atical formulas (H2SO4). †¢ Abbreviations (PVC) and acronyms (NATO, from North Atlantic Treaty Organization). Names of post (Prime Minister), organizations or administrations (United Nations, Prime Minister). The border line between word and term is drawn by the use of the lexical unit in a specialised field of knowledge with a specialised meaning or not. That is why a certain level of specialised knowledge is needed to recognise a term (we will only know that mouse is a term if we know the computing terminology). The characteristics of a text –communicative purpose, subject, specialisation grade– are also helpful to recognise the presence of terms.In order to establish the limit between term and word, it is important to know the characteristics of terms in a specialised language. According to Gutierrez Rodilla (1998: 88-94) the characteristics of terms are precision, emotional neutrality and stability over time. For instance, â€Å"aplasia† is a medical te rm meaning incomplete or faulty development of an organ; it is monosemic which implies precision; it is neutral emotionally; and finally, it is stable over time since it has been used without any variation in use, form and meaning for a long period of time in scientific documents.A concept can be described either by the definition or explanation. If it is not possible in a certain case to provide a definition at least an explanation should be given. The definition is the key to any scientific work. A definition is description of a concept by means of other known concepts, mostly in the form of words and terms. It determines the position of this concept in a system of other related concepts. Most foreign linguists pay more attention to semantic character of the term.They discover universal theoretical cases concerning terminological science, but not language facts are estimated by them superficially, without proper argumentation, unconvincingly. Terminological principles and methods are the basis for the unification of terminology work. They concern the analysis of concepts, the determination of their intension, the investigation of relationships of concepts, the design of systems of concepts, the description of concepts(definition), the assignment concept- designation(terms, symbols, etc. or vice versa, selection of adequate words or word elements for the formation of terms, creation of correct new terms etc. [23;25]. Characteristics of terms The reality around us is made up of a wide variety of objects that are observed or simply seen. The human mind is able to perceive every objects and generate a conceptual image that allows recreating the object even if it is not within our senses’ reach. In human communication, it is necessary to represent an objectconcept with a material and recognisable with the means available for humans.In a verbal language such representation is the word –oral or written– and the term in specialised communication . Thus, the term, as with any other word, is a sign with a triple dimension: †¢ Linguistic: the signifier (the formal aspect of the term). †¢ Cognitive: the meaning of the concept represented by a term. †¢ Ontological: the referent, the object from reality to be named. The three dimensions give three different, but related, aspects of terms: †¢ Linguistic dimension – symbolic aspect: this refers to a term as a symbol representing an object, a referent. Cognitive dimension – conceptual aspect: in relation to the concept that allows the human mind to keep the referent. †¢ Ontological dimension – referential aspect: the referent itself to be named and understood. Dimensions of a term cognitive linguistic ontological concept term referent conceptual symbolic referential aspects. To the three dimensions already explained, it is possible to add a fourth one that is implicit at the beginning of this section, the communicative dimension (associa ted with a discursive aspect).According to this dimension, the terms are inserted in a discourse with the purpose of taking part in the message produced in a communicative event. From this communicative point of view, the sender of the message, the author of the text, uses each term with a sole meaning, regardless of whether it is the term’s meaning, one chosen among the different concepts and referents represented by a single polysemic term, or an altered, modified or adulterated meaning that the author assigns to a term accidentally (perhaps due to a lack of competence in a specialised knowledge) or intentionally (a personal use of language and terminology).The balance in the relations between the different dimensions and aspects defines the characteristics of each term, but not all the terms share the same level of relations, that is why the features of terms as a whole are more of a trend, desired by their producers and users, than a reality. According to Gutierrez Rodill a (1998: 88-94) the features of terms are precision, emotional neutrality and stability. A term has to meet a number of requirements: 1. The term must be well motivated. The motivation of a term should be self-evident. 2. The term should be systematic. That means that it must be a member of terminological system. 3.The formation of the term must be in accordance with the syntactic rules of the language. 4. The term must be potentially productive of derivations. 5. The term must avoid pleonasm. This part of pleonastic formation generally occurs through a lack of linguistic knowledge. 6. The term should not contain superfluous elements. This may occur when the generic term and the specific term form a new term. 7. The term should preferably not have synonymous, homonymous or polysemous terms. 8. The term should be as short as possible without affecting its clarity. 9. The term should preferably not present orthographical or morphological variations. 18; 11] At the present stage of lan guage development society influences all language terminological processes such as term formation , interaction of generally used lexics and terminology, borrowing of terms from other languages and subsystems, development of polysemy, synonymy, antonymy, standardization and unification of terms, etc. In this chapter we observed theoretical problems of terminology, functions of terminology, requirements of a term, terms, their definition and classification, terminology and terminological system, the principles of terminology and methods.Also we named famous linguists who studied the problems of terminology. We observed the term as an indivisible unit of mentality that arises the smallest segment of concrete mentality process. By this segment in our year paper is a scientific concept of linguistic that indicates term- word which we receive on the basis of imagination about practical and theoretical activity of a person. We consider that linguistic term as a word is a part of vocabular y and is not isolated from the laws that influence on the lexical system in general.

Mandatory Second Language Essay

As I was getting ready to go out, â€Å"Made in China† tag of my shirt caught my attention. â€Å"My shirt traveled many miles to reach in my hands,† I said to myself. Then I looked at my shoes; they were made in Bangladesh. I called my computer tech; I was transferred in India. For a moment, I thought I was a citizen of a globalized society where borders did not exist. As a matter of fact, U.S companies invest more than $3.5 trillion a year to do business in other countries while foreign companies invest more than $2.3 trillion a year to do business in the United States (Williams, 2013, Intro to Management, 154). Our task is to set those numbers higher, which might not be an easy job if you don’t speak other countries language as they speak English. In order for a new generation to face globalization challenges, second language should be mandatory for all U.S students. As we grow global more foreign business in coming to U.S soil, and more U.S companies are reac hing international market. I also hear people complaining of high levels of unemployment. The company I work for is aiming to open another 500 hotels in Asia region. Bilinguals are in demand. Most of the qualified trainers must speak another language besides English. Preferably, Chinese or Indian. There is a demand for workers, but skill needed to do the job is missing. The company I work for has signed 21 new deals in China during 2010, compared with 18 all during 2009. â€Å"And development keeps growing,† says Harris Chan, Starwood’s vice president of operations support for China and Taiwan. Not only that, but according to the standards and policies of the company, every hotel should have a Chinese speaker in the team. Now I have a dilemma; should I spend 18 months going for my Master’s or should I use that time learning Chinese? Both options are valid for my working career. As I am working for a hotel industry, training is part of the job. The company sent me in Europe for a job training. A week in Barcelona! I struggled so hard to  sharpen my Spanish, before getting to Spain. The city was beautiful and impressive, but it would be better travel experience for me if would be able to tell the waiter how I wanted my eggs cooked, or how to ask for the bus station. What made me feel comfortable was the team I was working with. Everyone spoke another language besides their native ones. They all spoke English. I felt not confident using my broken English accent Spanish. I admit it was uncomfortable than everyone else spoke another language (maybe two) and I was the only one feeling comfortable only in English language. In fact, Spanish, Chinese, or any other language is not a bad idea in the country of melting pot. According to a study of an educational institution on 2010, below are the top ten foreign languages spoken in high schools of New York: America is the land of immigrants. Along with their traditions, immigrants bring their languages also. That is part of the American culture also. It is our job to maintain it. Not everyone that comes in the U.S soil speaks English. Does that mean, we have to shut the communication with the new immigrants just because of the language barriers? We all agree that, building walls is not an option. From the census of 2013, the governmental authorities stated that â€Å"As the nation continues to be a destination for people from other lands, this pattern of language diversity will also likely continue.† I believe that, separating from social events just because of the language barrier it is unhealthy for the overall society. Isolation makes people unsocial and less active in their communities, which leads them on building walls instead of bridges. Social health depends on proper communication. Our future generations need to fit in the multicultural and global environment. Our communities grow healthier and stronger is we are capable of speaking each other’s language. In a conclusion, I would say that a second language is a need for our generations. The latest global business events are requesting it, by developing new multilingual markets. A good portion of the US trade is done with non-English spoken countries. Our future business achievements will depend on how well we will be able to communicate. Second, the American youth is facing an intellectual competition with foreign  counterparts on language skills. While the average European teenager speaks two languages, most of the teenagers in the homeland speak only English. It looks like we are falling behind. Third, diversity plays a role in national and global business growth. Therefore, diverse language environment is common. Being able to speak more than English, it is not just a skill but a requirement in the new era of business globalization. Reference Lavrusik, V. (2010, April 4). Top 10 languages spoken by students at Manhattan International. http://archives.jrn.columbia.edu/coveringed/schoolstories10/2010/04/top-10-languages-spoken-by-students-at-manhattan-international/index.html Ryan, C. (2013, August 1). Language Use in the United States: 2011. http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf Williams, C. (2013). MGMT3 (5th ed). Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning Yu, R. (2010, October 26). Foreign hotels flock to China. https://web-b-ebscohost-com.libdatab.strayer.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=8&sid=684e6cc8-a980-4638bf02a989aee7%40sessionmgr110&hid=116&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=a9h&AN=J0E369281117410

Three Gorges Dam: Its Background and Relevance

This report examines the Three Gorge dam project and its impacts on the environment, the people it will effect and measures that can be taken as an alternative to the dam. I will discuss the Chinese government's reasoning for constructing the dam and the negative aspects of such a construction. Then I will explain the more environmentally friendly and logical alternatives. The concept of the Three Gorge dam is over 75 years old, dating back to when it was first proposed by the nationalist leader Sun Yat-Sen, in 1919. The dam was a dream of communist leader Mao Zedong, who felt it would be a potent symbol of China's self-sufficiency and ability to develop without western aid. The state media has reported only the rosy side of the Three Gorges project, presenting it as a powerful symbol of a new, prosperous China. Outgoing Premier Li Peng said the Three Gorges Dam would †demonstrate to the world that the Chinese people have the ability to build the biggest and most beneficial irrigation and hydro-electric project in the world†. The Three Gorges refers to a 120-mile stretch of limestone cliffs along the upper reaches of the Yangzi River where the water drops precipitously through the Qutang, Wu, and Xiling gorges. The region is linked to folklore and important historical events, and its beauty has inspired Chinese painters and classical poets such as Li Bai for centuries. The dam, which will be 1. 3 miles long and 610 feet high, is expected to be completed by 2009. It will create a 385 mile-long reservoir stretching back up the river that will totally engulf the Three Gorges, as well as 115,000 acres of rich farmland, thirteen cities, hundreds of villages, and countless historic temples and archaeological sites. Between 1. 4 and 1. 9 million people will need to be resettled. The proponents of the dam claim that the introduction of such a large amount of clean hydroelectric power into China's rapidly expanding economy will mean a significant reduction in the emission of fossil fuel pollution. First, it will generate 18000 megawatts of electricity, which would reduce the country's reliance on coal by one tenth. Hence reducing China's overall greenhouse gases. Second, it will prevent the periodical flooding of the Yangzi, which has already claimed the lives of half a million this century alone. The dam is expected to cut incidents of serious flood from once in 10 years to once in 100 years. At present 15 million lives are at stake as the river rises higher above the surrounding land because of sediment deposits on the riverbed, while dikes can no longer be raised safely. Third, it will make the upper part of the Yangzi more navigable, â€Å"raising the river's navigable tonnage by a big margin†. Improved navigability would allow ocean-going freighters to penetrate the depths of China's remote Southwest, bringing much needed economic development and prosperity to the region. The project is also expected to develop reservoir fisheries, stimulate tourism in and around the reservoir, improve water quality downstream, protect the lake areas downstream, and enable south-to-north water transfer sometime in the next century. 4. 0 Dilemmas surrounding dam construction There are many problems entangled with the construction of such a dam, two of which stand out. First, the fact that so many civilians have to be moved against their will. 13 cities, 140 towns, more than 1600 villages, and 300 factories will be submerged, and nearly 1. 5 million people relocated. Second, the effects that the rise in level of river will have on the environment. This includes the destruction of habitats for at least four indigenous species in the area. According to official figures, 10. 2 million people have been relocated for the construction of dams in the past in China. In each case, there have been economic or political problems that has often led to intimidation and sometimes violence to force the people to resettle. This is due to people's reluctance to leave their homes, which can be attributed to poor planning on the government's part. The number of people to be resettled in the Three Gorges dam project has been estimated to range between 700,000 to 1. 98 million. Such variation in figures is due to the fact that it depends on whether the information was gathered by the dam's supporters or critics. There has been a large amount of local opposition to the dam. Their opposition is mainly based on the poor record of China's Ministry of Water Resources, which includes the collapse of 62 dams in the past due to poor design. However, since the Chinese government never acknowledged such disasters in the past, it could not be brought up in hearings on the Three Gorge project. People in the effected area who have in the past organised against the dam were arrested and sentenced to prison for â€Å"counter-revolution† and the police presence in the area has since been increased. The local officials are not quite helping ease the situation. The distribution of compensation money by local authorities (US$1300 per person) offered to people displaced by the dam has been tainted by corruption. 105 local party officials involved in the project have been arrested already. Almost half of the project's resettlers are farmers. But since there is an inadequate amount of farmland left to be shared, the officials have planned for moving the resettlers into industrial jobs. This is quite an impossible task considering that the farmers have been farming in their area for generations and have absolutely no expertise in industrial work. It is a great concern that the construction of the dam will result in the destruction of the natural habitats of many of China's indigenous wildlife species. This includes the Chinese alligator, the white crane, the river dolphin and the prehistoric Chinese sturgeon, a fish unique to Yangzi waters. Experts warn that, by forever changing the hydrology of the river for thousands of miles, the dam will destroy commercial fish stocks and deprive the complex floodplain agricultural systems of the water and silt they need. Hence threatening the livelihoods of 75 million people who live on fishing or farming along the Yangzi's bank. Even if the 75 million people find another source to live on, there is yet another problem to be solved; toxic pollution. The factories along the Yangzi river are so polluting that over 200 paper mills and tanneries have already been closed down around the Three Gorges dam site to boost environmental protection. The contamination of the river by the toxic chemicals may increase due to the 1600 factories in the area that are not cleaned up and moved before the waters begin to rise. China is the world's second leading producer of greenhouse gases. If China's current growth rates continue, it will need to develop an additional 17,000 megawatts of energy per year for the next decade. And if coal is used to generate this energy, the environmental impacts could be disastrous. Whether or not the dam is constructed, hydropower will only account for no more than 20% of China's electricity generated by year 2010. This shows that coal will be used even more widely than it is now, to meet energy needs. Hence the dam will not have much impact on helping meet energy needs. China needs to find a cleaner, more efficient way of creating power. The Three Gorge reservoir is currently designed to hold 20 billion cubic meters at the flood level. But this capacity is only equivalent to 4% of the total run off water in the region. â€Å"It is obvious from common sense that this capacity could not hold back flood waters enough to reduce significantly the flood risk at the lower reaches. † Another problem is the fact that the Yangzi carries a large amount of silt. This silt can be carried all the way to the dam and a big ‘mud pond' could result. There is no such technology available to divert or collect the silt at the dam. From an ecological point of view, the dam will be clogged by the large silt deposits, in the Yangzi, and will also trap much of the pollutants that normally would be washed out to the ocean. Along the Yangzi, about 80 percent of the cities do not have sewage systems, and it is cheaper to dump the waste in the river instead of a sewage treatment plant. Burial grounds in both Wushan and Fengjie counties, Sichuan are known to have been dynamited to make way for scientific excavations in advance of the dam project. One thousand tombs dating between the Han and Ming periods (206 BC to AD 1644) were also blasted away. The problem lies with lack of funding. The initial budget (US$250 million) for excavation and preservation was reduced to US$37. 5 million. Only a small amount of this sum has been distributed to local authorities because government officials have been unable to decide which agency should administer the funds. The Three Gorges dam will be the most expensive single construction project in history. The Chinese leaders are so determined to build the dam, that they haven't considered whether it is economically viable. In 1992 the official cost of the dam was set to US$11 billion. Estimates now exceed US$75 billion. This could slow down China's recent economic boom. The dam project is heavily funded by foreign export agencies. If people in foreign countries were to stop foreign investors and government organisations which support the project, the Chinese officials would have no choice but to reconsider their plans. But since it is not in the foreign investors' best interest monetarily, they have kept supporting the Chinese government. Hydrological experts have argued that effective flood management includes dyking, flood proofing, flood warning systems, diversion areas, and development restrictions in floodplain and designated diversion areas and that dams are not always the answer. The Chinese officials' mentality is that the â€Å"biggest structure† is the best structure, but what they must realize is that it does not mean the best structure. That Chinese hydropower could be produced on a number of tributaries that flow into the Yangzi. This procedure has been proven by scientific examples that prove that separate dams will produce more power and last longer then one main dam. Sedimentation of separate dams would be less and these dams would be able to preserve China's cultural history. The greater amount of smaller dams would cause less soil erosion and more power for a much lower cost. It would be able to compete with China's booming industrial sectors and preserve the aquatic life. The construction of these smaller dams could also mean that it would lesson the amount of people to be resettled, and would save the Chinese government billions of dollars. However, the smaller dams would not allow large transportation of cargo down the river. Based on a recent study by United States and Chinese energy research institutes, which compared conventional sources with advanced generating technologies, cleaner alternatives, such as smaller gas turbines or cogeneration plants were found to be more economical for power generation than big hydro dams. Combined cycle gas turbines could provide power with lower capital costs and greater reliability than the Three Gorges dam and with far fewer emissions than conventional coal plants. Combined cycle plants are commonly fuelled with natural gas, which burns more thoroughly than solid or liquid fuels. And unlike coal, it contains no heavy metals or sulfur emissions that cause acid rain. Combined cycle plants can be installed and generating power reliably within nine months to two or three years for larger units. Three Gorges dam is scheduled to take 17 years. In addition energy specialists argue, that switching from coal to gas, and using new technology of combined cycle gas turbines or cogeneration, would create greater environmental benefits than the Three Gorges dam by a 60% reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. Whereas the Three Gorges dam would reduce carbon dioxide emissions by only 5%.

Mechanical Ethics Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Mechanical Ethics - Article Example This is an ethical concern because the engineers had the knowledge of the problem and failed to communicate on the issue. The company had to recall the vehicles for proper fixation. General motors paid more attention to the ignition problem. The engineers became more innovative in the process. They had to install a key ring that prevented the movement of the ignition key in an up-down motion. The company had to invest more in research and development. The aim of the research was to understand the ignition problem for the betterment of the product. The company was able to address the safety concerns and became alert to potential problems. It was unethical that the company knew the problem through its engineers, but decided to ignore the concern. Most of the crashes occurred where the drivers exceeded the speed limits on unpaved roads. Ethically, the company needed to issue a disclaimer that the vehicles were not fit for high speed on such roads. The recall was not cost effective for the company as it embarked on actions that would save the situation. My opinion on the issue is that the company was ethically wrong to ignore such a concern. It is not in order to put the lives of people at risk with an aim of profit maximization. The company should embrace and uphold customer safety rules and regulations. This would ensure that the customers became satisfied with any decisions that the company made. The company has clear ethical policies laid down in its Memorandum of Association. It should ensure the production of safe and clean products that are consistent with the generally accepted international standards. I will use my knowledge and expertise to ensure that the human welfare is enhanced. I will be honest in every project that I undertake. I will ensure that the decisions I make are free of bias. I will strive to become a professional of integrity to my employer, the clients, and the public.  

Evaluate A Companys Foundation for Execution Assignment

Evaluate A Companys Foundation for Execution - Assignment Example Thus, operating model comprises elements of business model and tactical abilities of an organisation (Deloitte Development LLC, 2011). Operating Model of IBM IBM is an international leader in information and technology segment. IBM performs in a stable business market, having a large number of competitors such as HP and Dell among others. A successful operating model depends on several external factors such as economic environment, market context and industry conditions along with internal factors (IBM, n.d.). IBM has identified three abilities which are also termed as Three A’s that can enhance the execution of operating model namely aligned, analytical and adaptable as demonstrated in figure 1. Fig 1: The Three A’s of Operating Model Source: (Giesen & et. al., 2009) Aligned Aligned operating model leverages core competences of an organisation and implements consistency across every dimension of business (such as external and internal facets). Traditionally, the core c ompetencies of IBM were its exclusive hardware and software solutions along with strong after sales services. However, the low price strategy of leading competitors has significantly contributed towards fading away the core competencies of IBM. In order to revitalise itself, IBM has changed its core competencies by diversifying the business to certain other segments such as insurance, financial services, retail and transportation in order to provide better information technology (IT) solutions. Furthermore, instead of competing with other rivals, IBM has moved towards the establishment of a strong network, facilitating to strengthen its core competencies with regard to better customer services (Harreld & et. al., 2006). Strategic Alignment of IBM: In operating... Thiss paper stresses that architecture maturity comprises different characteristics which are essential for assisting IT infrastructure of an organisation. The infrastructure exists for helping different operations of an organisation. Adaptive and active enterprise architecture allows organisations to change and manage business process complexities inherent in large organisations such as IBM. As architecture matures, likelihood, process control and efficiency also increase. The enterprise architecture model of IBM comprises organised industry leading functions, industry standards, industry rules, and established solution building blocks. It influences the widespread business domain understanding, along with leveraging fruitful industry skills, technical know-how and thought leadership that IBM possesses and utilises for value creation. This report makes a conclusion that the operating model of IBM helps to deliver a set of reliable and positive business outcomes with proper association amid different components. The operating model of IBM typically contains artefacts demonstrating strategic transformations, business procedures and service based architecture. The operating model demonstrates details about different core dimensions of the business which help to differentiate the organisation from other competitors. It is believed that IBM should constantly innovate and refurbish the operating model in order to seize the ever-present business opportunities.